2.2 The Separate Purposes of A Curiculum and A syllabus
The course designers' gull responsibility in that of setting not only broad, general goals but also specifying objectives which are made accessible to all those unvolved with the program. In this discussion will explain two tittles are used : curiculum and syllabus.
1. A curiculum contains a broad description of general goals by indicating an overall educational-cultural phylosophy which applies across subjects together with a theoretical orientation to language and language learning with respect to the subject matter at hand. A curiculum is often reflective of natonal trends as well.
2. a syllabus is a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning elements which translates the phylosophy of the curiculum into a series of planed steps leading towards more narrowly defined objectives at each level.
An important reason for differentiating between the two is to stress that a single curiculumcan the basis for developing a variety of specific syllabuses which are concerned with locally defined audiences, particular needs, and intermediate objectives.
2.2.1 The Components of Curiculum
Since the curiculum is concerned with a general rationale for formulating the policy decision, it combines educational-cultural goals with language goals. It focuses on one of the following major views : (a.) a behaviouristic orientation considers the human species to be a passive organism, reacting to external, evironmental stimuli; (b.) a rational-cognitive orientation consider the human species to be the source and initiator of all acts; (c.) a humanistic orientation is concerned with each individual's growth and development, while emphasizing effective factors as well.
Generally, educational orientation is compatible with on or more linguistic and language-learning theories. Thus, the behaviouristic view is an educational-psycological phylosophy which is compatible with a structuralist view of language and a stimulus-responds view about human language learning. Diagram below shows these three components of an audiolingual curiculum, a view which preveiled in the 1950s and 1960s, as an example of how major views affect the curiculum.
As indicated in the diagram, three basic orientations, one concerning language, one concerning language learning, and one concerning pedagogy can be reflected partially or fully in a wide variety of language learning approaches.
2.2.2 Types of Syllabuses
There are four major types of syllabuses, they are: the structural grammatical syllabus, the semantic-notional syllabuses, the functional syllabus, and the situational syllabus.
The familiar structural, grammatical or linguistic syllabus is centered around items, such as tenses, articles, singular/plural, complementation, adverbial, forms, etc. the notional (or semantico-notional) syllabus come into focus in the early seventies and placed the semantic unit in the center of syllabus organization. Such a syllabus is organized around themes relating to broad areas of meaning such as space, time, obligation, etc. (Wilkins 1976). The functional syllabus, which developed alongside notional syllabus with various attempts to combine the two, focuses on the social function of language as the central unit of organization. Thus a functional syllabus is concerned with elements such as invitation, suggestion, apologies, refusals, etc. (Wilkins 1976; McKay 1980). The fourth types mentioned here, the situational one, although less widespread than some of others, has probably been known in language learning for hundreds of years with the tourist phrase book as a notable example.
For the communicative needs, it is necessary to use the structural/situational syllabus for the first year of a course, moving to a functional plan if organization followed by notional/skill combination, leading finally to a fully communicative design for the final phases of the course.
How goals become realized through instructional plans
Translating general goals into syllabus objectives
A curriculum deals with abstract, general goals, while a syllabus, or instructional plans, guides teachers and learners in everyday concerns.
A curriculum provides a statement of policy
A viewpoint on the nature of language, a viewpoint on the nature of language learning, and an educational-cultural philosophy have an influence on the goals which become articulated through a curriculum, or a statement of a policy. A position in each one or any of these areas, either directly or indirectly stated, is reflected, in turn, in the formulation of general course goals.
Designer and planner of curriculum must always be aware of fluctuation in viewpoints held by linguists towards language, researchers towards language learning, along with the beliefs and values currently held by those in general education circles.
In fact, professionalism in course designing depends on establishing goals which take into account both specific requirements which meet the program’s needs as well as the state of the art in the field of language teaching at a particular point in time.
The link between goals and objectives
The relation between general goals at the curriculum level and specific objectives at the syllabus level is evident in the effect which goals have on the three concerns or means, and product or outcomes. In general, curriculum goals tend to place emphasis on one or another of these dimensions.
This linkage is shown graphically in this diagram below: the theoretical and philosophical views which mold the intellectual tone of curriculum affect how general goals are formed. These general goals, in turn, become the basis for specifying objectives in the three dimensions of a syllabus: language content, process or means, and product or outcomes:
Language content, process, and product in syllabus design
The language content dimension
Content has traditionally included three important subcomponents. Along with the language content, or structures, grammatical forms, etc., familiar to all, language courses have included thematic and situational content as well. Thematic content refers to the topic of interest and areas of subject knowledge selected as themes to talk or read about in order to learn and use the target language. In selecting appropriate themes, one would draw on considerations of learners’ age and other social criteria.
Situational content refers to the context within which the theme and the linguistic topics are presented; for example, the place, time, type of interaction, and the participants that are presented in the learning situation. These might involve shopping for some specific item in a department store as the place. In a syllabus or materials which emphasize the importance of situation selection, there would be a list of useful situations which learners would encounter during the course; the other elements such as structures and vocabulary would be selected to fit this list of useful, functional situations.
The Process dimension
As used in syllabus development, process refers to how interaction is carried out and learning is achieved. To describe process within the learning context is to describe the learners’ behavior and the activities in which they are involved while learning is going on. Process result from three major areas:
1. The organization of the language content which brings about certain activities.
2. The roles that teachers and learners take on during the learning process.
3. The types of activities and tasks in which learners are engaged.
All approaches to language learning have placed some degree of emphasis on process, but each viewed the concept of process differently. Thus, the audio-lingual approach singled out pattern-practice leading to automatic use as the most important feature of process. The cognitive-code approach focused on hypothesis testing and the creative use of language as key features of process. More recently, the communicative approach to language teaching has placed a much higher premium on process than ever before and process is now viewed as aiming at cognitively and communicatively engaging activities of as wide a variety as possible. Process in the syllabus is, therefore, highly affected by views of language learning and educational concept in general.
The product dimension
Product in syllabus design refers to the specification of the expected outcomes of a course of study. These specifications are used by various groups in quite different ways. Course outcomes can be divided into knowledge-oriented or skill-oriented skill types. When course planners choose to focus on the knowledge aspect of the course product, they must list the elements of content that learners are expected to master. In the other hand, when course designers choose to focus on skills rather than on knowledge or content, the definition of product is much more closely related to the actual use learners are expected to make of the new language. Skill specification must be based on a careful survey and evaluation of the needs of a particular student population in terms of present and future expectations.
CONCLUSSION
In curriculum discussion, the terms goal and aim are use interchangeably to refer to a description of the general purposes of a curriculum and objectives to refer to a more specific and concrete description of purposes.
In deciding on goals, planners choose from among alternative based on assumptions about the rule of teaching and of a curriculum. The planning of learning outcomes for a language course is closely related to the course planning process. Learning outcomes is not only about language, but also non language outcomes.
Establishing realistic goals will be different when it is applied to the different setting. Course designer who carefully consider the various approaches to syllabus design may arrive at the conclusion that a number of different ones are needed and are well-combined in a eclectic manner in order to bring about positive results.
REFERENCES
Richards, J. C. 2001. Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambrigde: CUP
Dubin, F. & Olstain, E. 1986. Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for Languange Teaching. Cambrigde: CUP
The course designers' gull responsibility in that of setting not only broad, general goals but also specifying objectives which are made accessible to all those unvolved with the program. In this discussion will explain two tittles are used : curiculum and syllabus.
1. A curiculum contains a broad description of general goals by indicating an overall educational-cultural phylosophy which applies across subjects together with a theoretical orientation to language and language learning with respect to the subject matter at hand. A curiculum is often reflective of natonal trends as well.
2. a syllabus is a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning elements which translates the phylosophy of the curiculum into a series of planed steps leading towards more narrowly defined objectives at each level.
An important reason for differentiating between the two is to stress that a single curiculumcan the basis for developing a variety of specific syllabuses which are concerned with locally defined audiences, particular needs, and intermediate objectives.
2.2.1 The Components of Curiculum
Since the curiculum is concerned with a general rationale for formulating the policy decision, it combines educational-cultural goals with language goals. It focuses on one of the following major views : (a.) a behaviouristic orientation considers the human species to be a passive organism, reacting to external, evironmental stimuli; (b.) a rational-cognitive orientation consider the human species to be the source and initiator of all acts; (c.) a humanistic orientation is concerned with each individual's growth and development, while emphasizing effective factors as well.
Generally, educational orientation is compatible with on or more linguistic and language-learning theories. Thus, the behaviouristic view is an educational-psycological phylosophy which is compatible with a structuralist view of language and a stimulus-responds view about human language learning. Diagram below shows these three components of an audiolingual curiculum, a view which preveiled in the 1950s and 1960s, as an example of how major views affect the curiculum.
As indicated in the diagram, three basic orientations, one concerning language, one concerning language learning, and one concerning pedagogy can be reflected partially or fully in a wide variety of language learning approaches.
2.2.2 Types of Syllabuses
There are four major types of syllabuses, they are: the structural grammatical syllabus, the semantic-notional syllabuses, the functional syllabus, and the situational syllabus.
The familiar structural, grammatical or linguistic syllabus is centered around items, such as tenses, articles, singular/plural, complementation, adverbial, forms, etc. the notional (or semantico-notional) syllabus come into focus in the early seventies and placed the semantic unit in the center of syllabus organization. Such a syllabus is organized around themes relating to broad areas of meaning such as space, time, obligation, etc. (Wilkins 1976). The functional syllabus, which developed alongside notional syllabus with various attempts to combine the two, focuses on the social function of language as the central unit of organization. Thus a functional syllabus is concerned with elements such as invitation, suggestion, apologies, refusals, etc. (Wilkins 1976; McKay 1980). The fourth types mentioned here, the situational one, although less widespread than some of others, has probably been known in language learning for hundreds of years with the tourist phrase book as a notable example.
For the communicative needs, it is necessary to use the structural/situational syllabus for the first year of a course, moving to a functional plan if organization followed by notional/skill combination, leading finally to a fully communicative design for the final phases of the course.
How goals become realized through instructional plans
Translating general goals into syllabus objectives
A curriculum deals with abstract, general goals, while a syllabus, or instructional plans, guides teachers and learners in everyday concerns.
A curriculum provides a statement of policy
A viewpoint on the nature of language, a viewpoint on the nature of language learning, and an educational-cultural philosophy have an influence on the goals which become articulated through a curriculum, or a statement of a policy. A position in each one or any of these areas, either directly or indirectly stated, is reflected, in turn, in the formulation of general course goals.
Designer and planner of curriculum must always be aware of fluctuation in viewpoints held by linguists towards language, researchers towards language learning, along with the beliefs and values currently held by those in general education circles.
In fact, professionalism in course designing depends on establishing goals which take into account both specific requirements which meet the program’s needs as well as the state of the art in the field of language teaching at a particular point in time.
The link between goals and objectives
The relation between general goals at the curriculum level and specific objectives at the syllabus level is evident in the effect which goals have on the three concerns or means, and product or outcomes. In general, curriculum goals tend to place emphasis on one or another of these dimensions.
This linkage is shown graphically in this diagram below: the theoretical and philosophical views which mold the intellectual tone of curriculum affect how general goals are formed. These general goals, in turn, become the basis for specifying objectives in the three dimensions of a syllabus: language content, process or means, and product or outcomes:
Language content, process, and product in syllabus design
The language content dimension
Content has traditionally included three important subcomponents. Along with the language content, or structures, grammatical forms, etc., familiar to all, language courses have included thematic and situational content as well. Thematic content refers to the topic of interest and areas of subject knowledge selected as themes to talk or read about in order to learn and use the target language. In selecting appropriate themes, one would draw on considerations of learners’ age and other social criteria.
Situational content refers to the context within which the theme and the linguistic topics are presented; for example, the place, time, type of interaction, and the participants that are presented in the learning situation. These might involve shopping for some specific item in a department store as the place. In a syllabus or materials which emphasize the importance of situation selection, there would be a list of useful situations which learners would encounter during the course; the other elements such as structures and vocabulary would be selected to fit this list of useful, functional situations.
The Process dimension
As used in syllabus development, process refers to how interaction is carried out and learning is achieved. To describe process within the learning context is to describe the learners’ behavior and the activities in which they are involved while learning is going on. Process result from three major areas:
1. The organization of the language content which brings about certain activities.
2. The roles that teachers and learners take on during the learning process.
3. The types of activities and tasks in which learners are engaged.
All approaches to language learning have placed some degree of emphasis on process, but each viewed the concept of process differently. Thus, the audio-lingual approach singled out pattern-practice leading to automatic use as the most important feature of process. The cognitive-code approach focused on hypothesis testing and the creative use of language as key features of process. More recently, the communicative approach to language teaching has placed a much higher premium on process than ever before and process is now viewed as aiming at cognitively and communicatively engaging activities of as wide a variety as possible. Process in the syllabus is, therefore, highly affected by views of language learning and educational concept in general.
The product dimension
Product in syllabus design refers to the specification of the expected outcomes of a course of study. These specifications are used by various groups in quite different ways. Course outcomes can be divided into knowledge-oriented or skill-oriented skill types. When course planners choose to focus on the knowledge aspect of the course product, they must list the elements of content that learners are expected to master. In the other hand, when course designers choose to focus on skills rather than on knowledge or content, the definition of product is much more closely related to the actual use learners are expected to make of the new language. Skill specification must be based on a careful survey and evaluation of the needs of a particular student population in terms of present and future expectations.
CONCLUSSION
In curriculum discussion, the terms goal and aim are use interchangeably to refer to a description of the general purposes of a curriculum and objectives to refer to a more specific and concrete description of purposes.
In deciding on goals, planners choose from among alternative based on assumptions about the rule of teaching and of a curriculum. The planning of learning outcomes for a language course is closely related to the course planning process. Learning outcomes is not only about language, but also non language outcomes.
Establishing realistic goals will be different when it is applied to the different setting. Course designer who carefully consider the various approaches to syllabus design may arrive at the conclusion that a number of different ones are needed and are well-combined in a eclectic manner in order to bring about positive results.
REFERENCES
Richards, J. C. 2001. Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambrigde: CUP
Dubin, F. & Olstain, E. 1986. Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for Languange Teaching. Cambrigde: CUP
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